That's the number of all directed graphs, some of which certainly have cycles.
Surveyed. Looking forward to the data and analysis, as per every year.
That's not how Big O notation works: O(100,000) = O(1).
You presumably mean "in the order of 100,000", which is sometimes written "~100,000".
This is at least as old as Leibnitz.
In type theory and some fields of logic, 2 is usually defined as (λf.λx.f (f x)); essentially, the concept of doing something twice.